At each sampling time instant, one observes system output and action to form discrete-time rewards. The sampled input-output data are collected along the trajectory of the dynamical system in ...

Comprehensive introduction to analysis of continuous and discrete-time signals and systems. Linear time-invariant systems, convolution; Fourier series representations of periodic signals; Continuous ...

Sigma-delta converters are in wide use among applications that demand high precision and accuracy. A variant of the sigma-delta architecture, called the continuous-time sigma delta (CT-S?), has found ...

Physicists have shown that Markov processes, widely used to model complex systems, must unfold over a larger space than previously assumed. Scientists believe that time is continuous, not discrete -- ...

Researchers demonstrate a novel method for transforming continuous time crystals into discrete ones using subharmonic injection locking, offering new insights into symmetry breaking and control in ...