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Statistical physics and thermodynamics provide a framework for relating the behaviour of microscopic particles to the macroscopic properties of a system. Thermodynamics casts these macroscopic, or ...

Pupil dilation provides a physiological readout of information gain during the brain's internal process of belief updating in the context of associative learning.

Decision-making inherently involves cause–effect relationships that introduce causal challenges. We argue that reliable algorithms for decision-making need to build upon causal reasoning. Addressing ...

Vikki Velasquez is a researcher and writer who has managed, coordinated, and directed various community and nonprofit organizations. She has conducted in-depth research on social and economic issues ...

Learn the benefits and risks of options and how to start trading options Lucas Downey is the co-founder of MoneyFlows, and an Investopedia Academy instructor. Samantha (Sam) Silberstein, CFP®, CSLP®, ...